Brief Insight into Enhanced Distillation--separation phenomena in handling azeotropic solution-

By: Muhammad Mufti Azis

Background of Separation Process
Study about separation process has been developed since the 18th century. By the time goes on, it could be seen that the onrushing development exist in many aspect of separation. Whilst, process improvement of separation rapidly grown in accordance with development of industries. Various kinds of chemical product have insisted company to achieve higher quality of product than market specification. Consequently, the experts are imposed to continuously improve the separation method due to fulfill market specification.

Separation processes is main part of unit operation. Unit operation has responsibilities in forefront and finale processes in Chemical Plant Industries. The forefront unit has responsibility preparing raw material so that it can fulfill the reactor specification. Normally, the equipment widely used in this unit consists of size-reduction equipment, screening equipment, mixing equipment, and so forth. The material then processed throughout chemical reaction occurs inside of chemical reactor.

The output products of reactor still contain large impurities (inert compound), undesired product (side product), and main product. For this reason, unit operation takes important role in order to increase the amount of main products by separating it from undesired product. Therefore, separation processes come to the forth to achieve the demand. Separation processes widely found in Chemical Process Industries (CPI) are distillation, extraction, absorption, adsorption, and so forth. Each of them has undergone many improvements in calculation method and application. All the things are done in order to keep pace with the development of processes in chemical industries.

As mentioned above, distillation is one of the separation processes usually being put on final unit of CPI. The main function of distillation unit is to separate desired products from undesired products. It can be involved by two or more components. The main principle here, distillation is separation process that uses heat as separating agent. It can be concluded that distillation process will utilize mass balance, heat balance, and equilibrium, respectively. All of those things become part of Chemical Engineering principles, well known as Chemical Engineering Tools.

The concept of distillation is based on (generally) equilibrium concept. Consequently, the graphical method, which interprets equilibrium data of particular system at specific pressure and temperature, is widely used in the past. Although the numerical and rigorous method is feasible to be computed nowadays, however, for quick calculation we can have more sensible result by using graphical method. The x-y system for binary system and residual curve (for ternary system) have been popular in solving distillation cases.

Azeotropic Solution

The term of azeotrope is derived from the Greek meaning “to boil unchanged’. Literally, azeotrope occurs when vapor boiling from a liquid has same composition as the liquid. An azeotrope solution is a liquid mixture that exhibits maximum or minimum boiling points of surrounding mixture compositions. Boiling points of the pure components in the mixture must be sufficiently close to permit formation of an azeotrope. A mixture of close-boiling components may form an azeotrope when only small deviation from ideal liquid solution occur. Azeotrope occur infrequently for mixture composed of components whose boiling points differ by more than 30oC (54oF).

Azeotropic system may be classified broadly in relation to the character of the azeotrope (maximum or minimum-boiling point), number of components in the system, and whether one or more liquid phase are formed (homogenous and heterogenous). Lecat (Comptes Rendous) proposed to divide azeotropes into : 1. Positive Azeotropes which has main characteristic minimum-boiling temperature at constant pressure; 2. Negative Azeotropes, which having maximum boiling temperature at constant pressure. There are some methods to determine azeotropes range and other analyzes about azeotropes solution.

The existence of azeotrope phenomena has been a subject study of some experts. The problem of separation azeotropic solution is mainly caused by the low purity of desire products. Unfortunately, most of organic and inorganic solutions are classified as azeotropic solution. Hence, some technique should be carried out when we encounter separation process of azeotropic solution. The technique is well-known as Enhanced Distillation.

Enhanced Distillation2

The separation technique of azeotropic solution is classified by Stichlmair,Fair,and Bravo as enhanced distillation. Enhanced Distillation is carried out when the relative volatility of two components may be below 1.10 (different boiling points less than 500C).

The techniques included as Enhanced Distillation are:
a. Extractive Distillation
b. Salt Distillation
c. Pressure-Swing Distillation
d. Homogenous Azeotropic Distillation
e. Heterogenous Azeotropic Distillation.

Here, each of them will be described more detail.

Extractive Distillation
Extractive distillation was first introduced by Dunn in connection with the commercial separation of toluene from paraffin using phenol as a solvent. This method uses a large amount of a relatively high-boiling solvent to alter the liquid phase activity of mixture, so that the relative volatility of the key components becomes more favorable.

Generally, extractive distillation is used to separate azeotrope and other mixtures that have key components with relative volatility below 1.1 over appreciable range of concentration. If the feed is minimum boiling point, solvent with a lower relative volatility is added above the feed stage and below top of the column. It is purposed so that the solvent is down flowing with the liquid at the bottom of the column and only a little amount of solvent is lost with the overhead vapors. If the feed is maximum boiling point, solvent enters the column with the feed.

In selecting solvent for extractive distillation, a number factors are considered including availability, cost, corosivity, vapor pressure, thermal stability, heat of vaporization, reactivity, toxicity, infinite-dilution activity coefficient in the solvent of the components to be separated, and ease of recovery for recycle. In addition, solvent should not form azeotropes. Initial screening is based on the measurement or prediction of infinite dilution activity coefficient.

Berg3 points out that all successful solvents for extractive distillation for extractive distillation are highly hydrogen-bonded liquids, such as (1) water, amino, alcohols, amides, and phenols that form three-dimensional networks of strong hydrogen bonds, and (2) alcohols, acids, phenols, and amides that are composed of molecules containing both active hydrogen atoms and donor atoms (oxygen, nitrogen, and fluorine). In general, it is very difficult or impossible to find suitable solvent to economically separate components having the same functional groups.

The disadvantages of extractive distillation are the using of large amount of solvent and, even though the solvent is introduced into the column several trays below the top tray, enough solvent is stripped by vapor traffic, and consequently it lowers the purity of distillate products.

Salt Distillation
The backwards of extractive distillation are the utilization large amount of solvent and appreciable amount of solvent which is stripped to the overhead vapor can reduce the purity of distillate. For this reason, Othmer4 introduces the use of concentrated Calcium Chloride Brine as a solvent. Not only does Calcium Chloride, which is highly soluble in water, reduce the relative volatility of water, but it also has strong affinity.

An even earlier patent by Van Raymbeke 5 describes the extractive distillation of ethanol from water by using solution of Calcium Chloride, Zinc Chloride, or Potassium Carbonate in Glycerol. Rather than using a solvent that contains a dissolved salt, the salt can be added as a solid or melt directly into the column by dissolving it in the liquid reflux before it enters the column. This technique was demonstrated experimentally by Cook and Furter6 for the separation of ethanol from water using Potassium Acetate. At salt concentration below saturation and between 5 and 10 mol%, an almost pure ethanol distillate was achieved. The salt, which must be soluble in the reflux, is recovered from the aqueous bottoms by evaporation and crystallization.

In an aqueous alcohol solution, both salting out and salting in have been observed by Johnson and Furter. They observed vapor-liquid equilibrium in (a). sodium nitrates salts out methanol (b). mercuric chloride salts in methanol. Even low concentration of potassium acetate, however, it can eliminate the ethanol-water azeotrope. In Germany, mixed acetate salts have been widely used for the separation of ethanol and water.
Salt distillation can also be applied to the separation of organic compounds that have little capacity alone for dissolving inorganic salts by using a special a special class by using a special class of organic salts called hydrotropes. Typical hydrotropic salts are alkali and alkaline-earth salts of the sulfonate of toluene, xylene, or cymene, and the alkali benzoates, thiocyanates, and salycilates. For example, Mahapatra, Gaikar, and Sharma7 showed that the addition of aqueous solution of 30 and 66 wt% p-toluenosulfonic acid to mixture of 2,6-xylenol and p-cresol at 1 atm increased the relative volatility from approximately 1 to about 3. Hydrotropes can also be used to enhance separation by liquid-liquid extraction.

Pressure Swing Distillation
System which forms homogenous azeotropes, either minimum or maximum boiling or both, can not be separated by simple fractional distillation. If the azeotrope composition is “pressure sensitive” or varies by at least 4 to 5 % over a nominal change of total pressure, it is possible to separate the azeotrope solution by using two-column fractionation. This process is referred to as pressure-swing distillation. Knapp and Doherty8 have listed 36 pressure sensitive binary azeotropes, which is taken mainly from Horsley 9.

Van Winkle describes the process of pressure swing distillation. Fig 1 and fig 2 show the operation for minimum and maximum boiling point azeotrope.

Fig 1. Distillation Sequence for minimum boiling azeotropes. (P110 . These conditions are based on the rule that for potential entrainer, E, the two components, A and B, to be separated, or any product azeotrope, must lie in the same distillation region of the residue-curve map. Thus, a distillation boundary cannot be connected to the A-B azeotrope. Furthermore, A or B, but not both, must be a saddle.

The maps suitable for a sequence that includes homogenous azeotropic distillation together with ordinary distillation are classified into five groups. For more detail explanation, it can be read in ”Basic Principles of Separation” by Henley and Seader.

It is often difficult to find an entrainer for a sequence involving homogenous azetropic distillation and ordinary distillation. However, azeotropic distillation can also be incorporated into a sequence involving separation operation other than distillation. In that case, some of the restriction for the entrainer and the resulting residue-curve map may not apply. For example, the separation of benzene and cyclohexane using acetone as the entrainer. The system violates the restrictions for a distillation-only sequence because the ternary system involves only two minimum-boiling binary azeotropes. However the separation can be achieved by: (1) Homogenous azeotropic distillation with acetone entrainer to produce bottom product of nearly pure benzene and a distillateclose in composition to the minimum-boiling binary azeotrope of acetone and cyclohexane, (2) liquid-liquid extraction of distillate with water to give a raffinate of nearly pure cyclohexane and an extract of acetone and water, and (3) ordinary distillation of extract to recover the acetone for recycle.

Heterogenous Azeotropic Distillation
The requirement for a distillation sequence based on homogenous azeotropic distillation, that A and B must lie in the same distillation region of the residue-curve map with entrainer, E, is so restrictive that is usually difficult, if not impossible, to find feasible entrainer.

An alternative technique that does find wide industrial application is heterogeneous azeotropic distillation, which is used to separate close boiling binary mixtures and minimum boiling binary azeotropes by employing entrainer that forms a binary and/or ternary heterogeneous azeotrope. The overhead vapor from the column is close to the composition of the heterogeneous azeotrope. When condensed, two liquid phases form in decanter downstream of the condenser. After separation in the decanter, most or all of the entrainer-rich liquid phase is returned to the column as a reflux, while most or all of the other liquid is sent to the next column for further separation. Because these two phases usually lie in different distillation regions of the residue-curve map, the restriction that usually dooms distillation sequences based on homogeneous azeotropic distillation is overcome. Thus, in heterogeneous azeotropic distillation, the components to be separated need not lie in the same distillation region.

Heterogeneous azeotropic distillation has been practiced for almost a century, first by batch and then by continuous processing. Two of the most widely used applications are (1) the use of benzene or one of a number of other entrainers to separate the minimum boiling azeotrope of ethanol and water, and (2) the use of ethyl acetate or one of a number of other entrainers to separate close-boiling mixture of acetic acid and water. Other applications, cited by Widagdo and Seider11, include dehydration of isopropanol with isopropylether,sec-butyl-alcohol with disec-butyl-ether, chloroform with mesityl oxide, formic acid with toluene, and acetic acid with toluene. Also dehydration of tanker-transported feed stocks such as styrene and benzene as major application.

A variety of column sequences for heterogeneous azeotropic distillation have been proposed. Three of these that utilize only distillation is taken from the study of Ryan and Doherty12. Most common is the usage of three column sequences. Three columns consist of : (1)preconcentrator column ; (2) azeotropic column which is completed by decanter to send back entrainer rich-liquid phase as reflux; (3) entrainer recovery column. Ryan and Doherty also proposed to use four columns, which the fourth column is water removal column. On the other hand, Pham and Doherty13 found no advantage for the four-column sequence over three-column sequence. A novel two columns sequence is described by Lynn, Ryan, and Doherty. The feed is sent to the column 2, which is a combined preconcentrator and entrainer recovery column. The distillate from this column is the feed to the azeotropic column. The bottom products of column 1 and 2 are nearly pure ethanol and nearly pure water respectively. For feeds that are very dilute in ethanol, Ryan and Doherty found that two-column sequence has a lower investment cost, but a higher operating cost, than the three-column sequence. For feeds that are richer in ethanol, these two sequences are economically comparable.

The convergence of rigorous calculation for heterogeneous azeotropic distillation can be extremely difficult, especially when the convergence of the entire sequence is attempted. For calculation purposes, it is preferable to uncouple the column by using a residue curve-map to establish, by material balance calculations, the flow rates and composition of the feeds and products for each column. Among the most successful approaches for the most difficult cases are the boundary-value tray-by-tray method of Ryan and Doherty, the homotopy-continuation method of Kovach and Seider14, and the collocation method of Swartz and Stewart15.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Extractive distillation, salt distillation, pressure swing distillation, homogeneous azeotropic distillation, and heterogeneous azeotropic distillation are enhanced distillation technique to be considered when separation by ordinary distillation is uneconomical or impossible.
2. Extractive distillation, using low volatility solvent that enters near the top of the column, is widely used to separate azeotropes and very close boiling mixtures. Preferably, the solvent should not form an azeotrope with any component with any component in the feed.
3. Certain salts, when added to a solvent, reduce the volatility of the solvent and increase the relative volatility between the two components to be separated. In this process, called salt distillation, the salt is dissolved in the solvent or added as a solid or melt to the reflux.
4. Pressure-swing distillation, utilizing two columns operating at different pressures, can be used to separate an azeotropic mixture when the azeotrope can be made to disappear at some pressure. If not, the technique may still be practical if the azeotropic composition changes by 5 mol% or more over a moderate range of pressure.
5. In homogeneous azeotropic distillation, an entrainer is added on a stage, usually above the feed stage. A minimum or maximum-boiling azeotrope, formed by the entrainer with one or more feed components, is removed from top or the bottom of the column, respectively. Unfortunately, the application of this technique for difficult separation of mixtures are not common because of limitations due to distillation boundaries.
6. A more common and useful technique is heterogeneous azeotropic distillation, in which the entrainer forms, with one or more components of the feed, a minimum boiling-boiling heterogeneous azeotrope. When condensed, the overhead vapor splits into organic-rich and water-rich phases. The azeotrope is broken by returning one liquid phase as reflux, with the other sent on as distillate for further processing.

REFERENCES

Van Winkle, M., 1967, Distillation, pp. 381-389, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Perry, R.H., and Green, D.W.,1984, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6 ed, pp. 13-53 – 13-65, McGraw-Hill International Editions, New York.
Henley and Seader, 2006, Separation Process Principle, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, Massachusets
[1] JD. Seader wrote Chapter 13: Distillation in Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook 6th edition
2 Based on Henley and Seader“Basic Principles of Separation”.
3Berg,L.,Chem.Eng,Progress, 65 (9), 52-57 (1969)
4 Othmer, D.F., AICHE Symp. Series,235 (79), 90-117 (1983)
5 Van Raymbeke, U.S. Patent 1,474,216 (1922)
6 Cook, R.A., and W.F. Futter, Can. J. Chem.Eng.,46, 119-123 (1968)
7 Mahapatra, A., V.G. Gaikar, and M.M. Sharma, Sep. Sci. and Tech., 23, 429-436 (1988).
8 Knapp, J.P., and M.F. Doherty, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,31, 346-357 (1992).
9 Horsley, L.H., “Azeotropic Data III”, in Advance in Chemistry Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., Vol. 116 (1973).
10 Doherty, M.F., and G.A. Caldarola, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam.,24,474-485 (1985).
11 Widagdo, S., and W.D. Seider, AICHE J.,42, 96-130 (1996).
12 Ryan, P.J., and M.F. Doherty, AICHE J., 35, 1592-1601 (1989).
13 Pham, H.N., and M.F. Doherty, Chem. Eng. Sci., 45, 1845-1854 (1990).
14 Kovach, III, J.W., and W.D. Seider, Computers and Chem. Engng., 11, 593 (1987).
15 Swartz, C.L.E., and W.E. Stewart, AICHE J., 33, 1977-1985 (1987).

Curbing terrorism with renewable energy -US and Middle East study-

by: Muhammad Mufti Azis

Introduction.
Reliance to renewable energy can be one primary key to fight terrorism. The issue of terrorism has developed rapidly to be a serious obstacle for achieving sustainable development. Since the 9/11 tragedy, terrorism has become a shocking issue and grow a despair to the world peace.

Definition of terrorism is “the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective”. [1] Generally, terrorism is commonly adopted by nationalist organization, political parties, religious groups, revolutionaries and state institution to achieve their organization’s goal. Historically, during French revolution in 1790, the “terror” term was used extensively by revolutionaries against their opponents. [1]

Sustainable development and renewable energy
One of the pillars of sustainability development is reliance on renewable energy. Among of many alternatives energy, solar and wind energy is becoming the most prospective solution to replace fossil fuel in generating electricity. US Department of Energy reported 76% of total world energy (2004) is supplied by fossil fuel. Recently, USA consumes 25% of global oil production. From this value, total oil imported to US is about 60% where 25% of total oil imported is from Middle East. [6] [7]

Renewable energy is a promising prospect. However, the challenge of finding alternative energy will take approximately 50-75 years. [7] Fortunately, through Solar America Initiative (SAI), US has plotted a long term goal at 2015 in the developing of solar energy (Photo Voltaic (PV) cell). By 2015, SAI will provide 5-10 gigawatts of new electric capacity (enough to power 1-2 million homes) in the US grid. It results in avoiding 10 million metric tons per year of CO2 emission and employs 30,000 new workers in the PV industry.[11] In line with US, European Renewable Energy Council (EREC) projected 61% supply of generating electricity from renewable energy sources during 2011-2020 where wind energy gives the largest contribution. [2]

Trade-off
Middle East has the biggest oil reserve in the world. Unfortunately, this region is known as instable area because of war and many other conflicts. The wars in some countries trigger radical groups (as a seed of terrorist group) grow rapidly. Furthermore, in some countries this condition is undermined by lack of education and poverty problems.

Due to dependence on oil, US has political interest in Middle East. Amid the relentless conflict in Middle East, US presence can lead to anti-america cynicism. Some of radical groups are disappointed and or have different orientation with US policy in the Middle East. As a result, radical groups will inevitably use terrorism as a tool against US presence. [4] [6]

Meanwhile, terrorist financing is tied to oil party in Middle East. For instance, Saudi Arabia earned almost US$ 55 billion from crude oil exports in 2002. With the huge amount of money, it is vulnerable for terrorist to practice money laundering. In other word, Western (especially US) is trapped and entangled with “fuelling” terror itself. Further enrichment to Middle East exporter countries will continue terrorist group to have access build its financial network. [5]

In addition, Moisi, French international relations expert, sketches current world as a “clash of emotion” where the West displays a culture of fear, Arab and Moslem trapped to culture of humiliation, and much of Asia shows culture of hope. Culture of humiliation is then gradually becomes culture of hatred (by misinterpretation of religious belief). [8] As we know, this unfortunate phenomenon is resulting in bad impacts both for the West and Moslem. In fact, peace over this conflict is an important focus to achieve sustainable society.

War against terrorism
In order to achieve peace in the world, curbing terrorism becomes a main issue of global security. Every country in the world states global war against terrorism. It has been performed as military action, joint security agreements and even negotiation. Military action, for example, is practiced by US military and allies for attacking “terrorist cell” in Afghanistan and Iraq. Sadly, peace resulted from military action is only temporal and can lead revenge from the lose party. In other word, military action is not a “prudent” solution and ineffective way to eradicate terrorist group.

Many countries reinforce joint agreement through either United Nation (UN) or regional security committee. UN resolution of Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy was agreed by all Member States on 8 September 2006. The resolution covers whole aspect of terrorism, includes practical steps to prevent and combat terrorism. Those practical steps are ranging from strengthening state capacity up to better coordination under United Nations. [10]

Negotiation has been practiced by many countries as it doesn’t cost much for human kind and it will not destabilize their homeland political system. However, obstacle of negotiation for many countries is that negotiating with terrorist is regarded to decrease their integrity in front of the world. Traditional terrorist who aspires for nationalism and separatism has potential to be a constructive counterpart. On the other hand, nihilistic terrorist who have “absolute” (even apocalyptic) goals, for instance Al Qaeda, might be difficult to compromise since violence has become their self realization. [9]

Given such unfortunate condition, US should use the “different approach” to compromise with nihilistic terrorist, for instance Al Qaeda, instead of military action. The “different approach” is defined as developing renewable energy sources which can result on reducing dependence on oil. There is no guarantee a hundred percent if the “different approach” method can annihilate terrorism in the world, however it is hoped that it can minimize terrorism practice in the world. There are too many innocent victims of terrorism, but don’t make more victims in combating terrorism.

Remarks

From the explanation above, there are at least four points:
1. Dependence on nonrenewable energy sources makes US becomes vulnerable target of terrorist. Pursuit of alternative energy sources is considerably important to minimize terrorist attack.[3] [6]
2. Renewable energy, especially solar and wind, has grown rapidly in US and Europe. In future, these renewable energy are promising better future.
3. Military action is not the best way to get rid of terrorism and negotiation should be considered as first priority to deal with terrorist.
4. Joint security organization will unite the world to have same perception and responsibility to against terrorism.

“Nothing in life is to be feared. It is only to be understood” (Marie Curie)

References
1. Encyclopedia Britannica. Terrorism.
URL: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797/terrorism [opened 2007-09-20]
2. European Renewable Energy Council. Renewable Energy Target for Europe 20% by 2020.
URL: http://www.wind-energie.de/fileadmin/dokumente/Themen_A-Z/Europa/EREC_Targets_2020.pdf [opened 2007-09-20]
3. Gunter, Jr., Michael. Fighting the War on Terrorism with More Sustainable Development.
URL: http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p69649_index.html [opened 2007-09-20]
4. Haass, Richard N. The New Middle East. November/ December 2006.
URL: http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20061101faessay85601-p30/richard-n-haass/the-new-middle-east.html [opened 2007-09-20]
5. IAGS. Fuelling terror. URL: http://www.iags.org/fuelingterror.html [opened 2007-09-20]
6. Luft, Gal, and Korin, Anne. Terror’s next target. URL: http://www.iags.org/n1216041.htm
[opened 2007-09-20]
7. Miller, Jr., G.Tyler. Living in the environment-Principles, Connections, and Solution. 2006.
International Student Edition. 15th edition. Thomson-Brooks/Cole
8. Moisi, Dominique. The Clash of Emotion. January/ February 2007.
URL: http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20070101facomment86102/dominique-moisi/the-clash-of-
emotions.html [opened 2007-09-20]
9. Neumann, Peter R. Negotiating with Terrorist. January/February 2007.
URL:http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20070101faessay86110/peter-r-neumann/negotiating-with- terrorists.html [opened 2007-09-20]
10. United Nation. UN Action To Counter TERRORISM.
URL: http://www.un.org/terrorism/strategy-counter-terrorism.html [opened 2007-09-20]
11. US Department of Energy. Solar America Initiative.
URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_america/about.html [opened 2007-09-20]

Penaikan Harga BBM Kebijakan Propoor?

By: Afrina Laksmiarti

Media Indonesia, Rabu 18 Juni 2008

Retrieved from:

http://mediaindonesia.com/index.php?ar_id=MTAwMzI=

Beberapa waktu lalu harga pangan global, kini penaikan harga BBM yang menjadi giliran hot issue di berbagai lapisan masyarakat dunia dan Tanah Air. Di Indonesia, harga BBM naik sebesar 28,7%. Tak sedikit orang yang pro, tak sedikit pula orang yang kontra. Bahkan, perihal harga BBM itu telah diperluas hingga memasuki ranah perpolitikan yang kian memanas menjelang Pemilu 2009. Di atas segalanya, inti dari ribut-ributnya soal penaikan harga BBM adalah perut yang kosong hari ini. Dengan situasi yang 'sulit', perlu disadari bahwa pihak-pihak tertentu akan 'memanfaatkan' momen itu dan dikhawatirkan masyarakat rentan terhadap aksi provokasi. Dengan pikiran yang bijak, cobalah kita melihat apakah perumus kebijakan telah berupaya keras untuk menciptakan sebuah kesejahteraan rakyat? Pada 23 Mei 2008, tercatat harga minyak dunia telah menembus angka US$135 per barel dan kurs tengah mencapai Rp9.340. Menurut ukuran petroleum Amerika Serikat, diketahui, 1 barel sama dengan 158,9872956 liter. Bila dikalkulasi dengan nilai rupiah, harga minyak dunia sebesar Rp7.930,822 per liter. Sementara itu, harga premium di dalam negeri dikalkulasi sebesar 76% dari harga tersebut, yaitu Rp6.027,425 per liter. Jadi, selisih dari kedua harga tersebut Rp1.903,397 per liter. Anggaplah itu biaya yang harus dikeluarkan untuk keperluan distribusi dan transaksi ekonomi. Coba bandingkan dengan penetapan harga premium sebesar Rp6.000 per liter berdasarkan Peraturan Menteri ESDM No 16 Tahun 2008. Tampaknya, harga premium di dalam negeri diupayakan agar mencapai disparitas harga yang relatif kecil terhadap harga di pasar internasional. Dengan kalkulasi yang sederhana di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa penetapan harga BBM saat ini ditujukan untuk melindungi produsen dan konsumen di dalam negeri, terutama dari aksi-aksi penyelundupan BBM dan spekulasi harga. Bila arus distribusi dan pasokan BBM tidak mengalami gangguan, masalah kelangkaan BBM tidak akan terjadi.

Dengan tersedianya BBM di dalam negeri dan harga yang relatif terjangkau oleh masyarakat, roda perekonomian akan berjalan lancar. Mulai dari kegiatan produksi, timbul proses penciptaan pendapatan, kemudian terdapat aliran balas jasa berupa upah dan gaji kepada tenaga kerja. Jika harga barang dan jasa cenderung stabil dan upah meningkat, daya beli akan naik. Selanjutnya, terjadilah suatu mekanisme demand dan supply. Tentunya, mekanisme bersyarat itu dapat menjadi realitas di masyarakat apabila pemerintah memberikan dukungan kebijakan yang sifatnya nyata, tegas, dan konsisten untuk mewujudkan masyarakat yang adil, makmur, dan sejahtera. Tak dapat dimungkiri, keberadaan sektor swasta juga mempunyai peranan yang signifikan dalam perekonomian bangsa ini, khususnya dalam hal peningkatan investasi, infrastruktur, dan penciptaan lapangan kerja. Masyarakat sendiri secara sadar harus terlibat secara aktif dan positif dalam mendukung proses pembangunan tersebut. Kebijakan apa pun itu namanya dan bentuknya akan menimbulkan efek, baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung. Bahkan, mengakibatkan trade-off atau sebuah pengorbanan. Pemerintah berupaya untuk meredam dan mengatasi berbagai efek pascanaiknya harga BBM. Program yang paling mencuat di masyarakat adalah bantuan langsung tunai (BLT) yang secara konseptual ditujukan untuk membantu rakyat miskin dalam mengatasi shock jangka pendek. Dalam implementasinya, beberapa masyarakat menolak BLT, tetapi beberapa masyarakat menikmati manfaat nyata dari BLT. Meskipun, jika diukur dengan harga saat ini, nilai riil dari BLT relatif rendah.

Selain itu, secara bersinergi masih banyak alternatif program yang dicanangkan pemerintah dalam jangka menengah dan jangka panjang. Salah satunya, kredit usaha rakyat (KUR), yaitu program penyaluran penjaminan kredit melalui perbankan. Total penyaluran KUR sampai dengan akhir Mei 2008 mencapai Rp6,873 triliun dengan jumlah debitur sebanyak 672.860 orang dan rata-rata pengajuan kredit sebesar Rp10,2 juta. Program itu menjaring pengusaha mikro yang tidak memiliki agunan, tetapi memiliki usaha yang layak dibiayai bank. Pemerintah bertindak sebagai penyedia dana penjaminan kredit sekaligus fasilitator antara perbankan dan pelaku usaha. Dengan penaikan harga BBM ini, serangkaian tindakan dapat dijadikan alternatif solusi, antara lain tersedia data mengenai jumlah dan lokasi rakyat miskin, pengusaha mikro dan kecil yang update dan akurat, pemantauan dan evaluasi terhadap implementasi kebijakan/program pengurangan subsidi BBM di lapangan, subsidi BBM hanya diperuntukkan transportasi umum, pengawasan yang ketat terhadap distribusi komoditas BBM di pelabuhan, pengenaan pajak yang tinggi atas kendaraan pribadi yang lebih dari satu, pajak ekspor atas bahan galian strategis, melakukan penghematan listrik, mengurangi proses pengolahan makanan dengan minyak goreng, dan mengaktifkan penggunaan sumber energi alternatif sebagai pengganti BBM. Diiringi dengan komitmen dan niat yang tulus, semoga Indonesia bangkit, Indonesia bisa!

Islamic Boarding School: frontier of development in rural area.

By: Muhammad Mufti Azis

Islamic Boarding School (IBS), also known as Pesantren, is a reliable moving agent in the development of rural area. For Indonesian, IBS has grown along with up and down of Indonesian history. In the past, IBS not only known as a basis of Moslem education but also had created innumerable brave countrymen to build our nation. Today, IBS has been growing rapidly. This phenomenon is also shown by many of IBS today start adopting modern curriculum (excellent language skill) with modern infrastructures. Besides, it is accepted that IBS is an institution which arise opulently in rural area and posses social spirit to increase local human dignity. Therefore, it is conceivable to say that IBS will be a frontier to escort rural Indonesian people to enter the globalization.

Generally, IBS transformation from traditional to modern institution runs smoothly from all over the place in Indonesia. National Education Department recently has reported a significant increase in IBS quality. Apparently, it is fruit of IBS modernization in Indonesia besides the upgrading of school facilities itself. I am personally convinced that in a near future we will be able to see an IBS student can grab a gold medal in an International Science Olympiad.

Historically, the major reason of Islamic scholars to establish IBS is for the sake of less fortunate people. The poor is widely spread on rural area and this fact triggered many IBS to grow from rural area. Paternalism culture has smoothed Islamic scholars to set up IBS in accordance with the local wisdom. As a result, Islamic scholars will play important role among the society and will enhance the good image of IBS as well.

The presence of IBS in many places has inspired villagers to grow and increase their life quality. As we might know, IBS students mostly come from less fortunate family. Therefore, to finance the operation of IBS, IBS sets up an entrepreneurship program. In the program, students are asked to develop their village potential under government advisory. For example in West Nusa Tenggara, Nurul Hakim Boarding school successfully helps Sasak people to develop their community (Segenter village). Therefore, this fact shows that the presence of IBS has influenced villager’s awareness to improve their life quality through a real community action.

Unfortunately, in many occasions, western countries often blindly accuse IBS as a terrorists hide-out. It is triggered by Islamic paranoid syndrome which fast emerges after 11 Sept tragedy. Obviously, it is unacceptable and hinders IBS to be an international education institution. However, In opposite from that, United Nations (UN) has awarded IBS in Indonesia as a role model for another Moslem developing country as a reliable mean to eradicate poverty.

In conclusion, it is inevitable if IBS has created many contributions for rural area development in Indonesia. In future, NU and Muhammadiyah, as the most influential Islamic organization in Indonesia, should develop sustainable cooperation to enlarge IBS role in Indonesia with another Islamic organizations. Likewise, the Indonesian government should actively promote to the International forums of the benefits from IBS presence in Indonesia.

What’s the meaning of square?

-Criticism to the launching of bilingual program for high school-
By: Muhammad Mufti Azis

Bilingualism in mathematics and science is too early for high school students. As we might know today, government launches new education system called bilingual program for high school grade. In this program, several subjects will be given partially in English as well as in Bahasa Indonesia. According to the program, core subjects such as Mathematics and Sciences becomes the main target besides of English itself. For this purpose, several favorite schools are pointed to be the pilot project.

In line with the government, the school institutions aggressively promotes the benefits and importances of the bilingual program in front of new student parents. No wonder, many parents flocked to send their children into this program. They believe if the program can give extra value and knowledge regardless higher tuition fee. For parents, a success of sending their children into bilingual program will boost their prestige in society.

Basically, the phenomenon is triggered by English deification. Indonesians feel more confident and smart-looked when using English. This faulty perception has led education policy-maker to release a reckless policy (bilingual program). In the realization, sadly, it is not supported by satisfying English competence of all education elements. As a result, non-English teacher and students have to attend extra English course outside their school time. In one side, yes it is beneficial for them, however still it is time consuming and costly during their hectic schedule.

For Mathematics and Sciences teaching, the success of transfer knowledge becomes an unbargained-price. If the delivery process is still burdened by language barrier, it will cause partial and miss-understanding among the pupils. In the future, it will lead them to a wrong concept and it can be damaging (catastrophic) for them if not immediately corrected.

All by all, we realize if the English competence is badly needed in this modern era. English competence of students can be increased by any kind of up-to-date method in English teaching. Even so, the bilingual program in which teaching non-English subjects into English is still not relevant for high school grade in Indonesia.

Welcome to the red carpet and good bye the green carpet

By: Muhammad Mufti Azis

What a shocking news when we know former England captain, David Beckham, signed US$ 248 million contract with USA MLS team, LA.Galaxy. In response, his fans around the world are inquiring about his reason to leave giant Spanish team, Real Madrid. Historically, football doesn’t have deep root in USA. In 1970s, Brazilian football star Pele chose to end his football career in USA. However, it didn’t make football became popular sport among the Americans. In line, David also stated if his main reason moved to USA is to evangelize football there. However, is it logically acceptable?
David Beckham is living with pop-star singer, Victoria ”posh spice” Beckham. Relentless attention from paparazzi makes them the most photographed celebrities. As a result, the couple has become the most popular figure in the world. Now, in the edge of his football career, several football critics agreed if David was obsessed conquering the most extravagant industry, Hollywood.
Historically, Hollywood has been growing as heaven for world superstar with the glamorous life. Hollywood provides abundant opportunities for showbiz oriented person such David Beckham. The passion to be Hollywood superstar is more acceptable reason rather than convincing America to fall in love with football. In his 31 years old, it is an apt choice before completely “hanging the boots”.

Harnessing Bioenergy from Lignin

Muhammad Mufti Azis
Masters student in Innovative and Sustainable Chemical Engineering,
Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
Member of Chalmers Students for Sustainability (CSS)

ABSTRACT:
The paper focuses on utilization of biomass energy from lignin. Extraction of lignin (pulp mill residue) from kraft black liquor through LignoBoost process has been well-developed. High purity lignin produced from LignoBoost process is a potential alternative to reduce fossil fuel consumption in pulp mill, local electricity generation and district heating system. Furthermore, utilization of biomass is environmentally friendly and inline with public demand to rely on renewable energy. Finally, lignin extraction is a promising breakthrough to bring off pulp mill industry as a biorefinery industry in the future.

Keywords: lignin; LignoBoost; biomass energy; kraft black liquor

Introduction
Recently, demand of bioenergy becomes a pinnacle issue as an effect of climate protection policy. For this reason, development of bioenergy in terms of either biofuel or biomass becomes more demanding. Biomass energy currently contributes 11 percent of total world energy consumption (IEA 2004 cited Miller 2007). At this share, biomass is the single largest of renewable energy. Second generation of biofuel which is dominated by forestry products becomes of importance in future. As a result, it puts wood-based materials as the most potential source for future bioenergy (ölz et al 2007).

Woody plants are divided into softwood and hardwood which contain 25-31 percent and 16-24 percent lignin respectively (Smook 2002). Softwood and hardwood are main raw materials in pulp and paper industries. For this reason, it is conceivable that the availability of industrial lignin material is mainly from pulp and paper industries (Lebo et al 2001). Total world production of black liquor recently is 175 million tDS or equal to 600 TWh of energy. Apparently demand for pulp and paper will steady increase on average 3.5 percent/year. It results the black liquor supply will show more increase in the future (Ekbom et al 2001).

Lignoboost process
Since 1996, Chalmers University of Technology and STFI-Packforsk initiated to investigate lignin extraction process under “Ecocyclic Pulp Mill” (KAM) and FRAM-programs. One of common methods to extract lignin is by acidifying kraft black liquor followed by precipitation of lignin. Afterwards, lignin should be separated from black liquor by filtration. On the first part of the project, it was found that traditional single stage washing caused complete or partial plugging of washing water. As a result, it led to high impurity of lignin product (Axegård 2007).
Later on, it was found that the main cause of plugging was the change of lignin solubility. Further study shows this phenomenon occurs due to high gradient of pH and ion strength (in terms of sodium content) during washing steps as depicted in figure 1. From this figure, it can be seen that just after the washing, the pH is level out on high pH while in the same time ion strength start decreasing dramatically. Thus, high pH combined with low ion strength was believed as influential factor of lignin dissolution. This finding opens up opportunity to invent new washing method. The new method of lignin washing consists of two washing steps accomplished with re-slurry tank in between (öhman et al 2007). Figure 2 shows the improved washing method. On the first dewatering stage, washing is carried out in high pH condition which is approximately pH 10. The cake formed from first filtration is then re-dispersed onto re-slurry tank. The aim of re-slurrying step is to provide ample space to control lignin solution to reach low pH (approximately 2-4). Final pH should be low in order to obtain low sodium content which is favored if lignin would be used as biofuel. From this explanation, plugging problem has been resolved by new improved washing method. Later on, this new washing method is named LignoBoost process (Axegård 2007).

Fig.1 The pH profile during washing stage. Sodium and lignin concentration are also shown on the right. (experimental conditions: wash water pH 1.05, wash water temperature 20oC and precipitation pH 10). From: öhman et.al. (2007)


Lignin produced from LignoBoost has high purity and energy content. Effective heat value (dry) of lignin is 25.4 MJ/Kg Dry Solid with sodium content 0.03 percent on dry weight. Low sodium content means cleaner combustion when lignin is used as biofuel or co-firing fuel (Axegård 2007).

Pilot plant with capacity 4000 tones annually was built in Bäckhammar. Lignin produced is used in lime kiln, bark boiler and Fortum’s heat and power plant in Stockholm. The possibility to use either CO2 from lime kiln or ethanol plant to precipitate lignin is also considered in future. Long research and development of LignoBoost has filled two patent applications and established new company, LignoBoost AB, on 2006 to investigate further development of this technology (Axegård 2007).

Fig.2 LignoBoost process. The area within dash-box is the modified part on lignin washing. From: öhman et.al. (2006)


Environmental gain
Forest and pulp industry has important role to fulfill Swedish target for CO2 reduction. According to life cycle study, average CO2 emission from Kraft Pulp in year 2000 is 220 Kg CO2/ADt. This value is dominated by emission from production and transportation of chemicals. As comparison, reference mill emits -260 Kg CO2/ADt which means that society’s net emission of CO2 is reduced as a result of pulp production. This figure is obtained due to potential to generate power from bark and surplus black liquor. Its utilization replaces power from natural gas combined cycle. Hence it is obvious if lignin utilization as bioenergy could also decrease CO2 emission (Backlund 2007).

Co-firing combustion between coal and biomass is an interesting alternative. Incineration test lignin-liquid coal in 410 MW PFBC (Pressurized Fluided Bed Combined-cycle) shows promising result. Furthermore, laboratory result shows that 10-15 percent of lignin could be readily mixed with coal paste without any handling problem (Axegård 2007). In short term, IEA noticed that co-firing biomass is still a most cost-effective way to utilize biomass (IEA, 2007).

Socio-economic aspect
Lignin extraction was initially purposed to debottleneck pulp mill capacity. Roughly, LignoBoost investment is only one-half of investment to up-grade recovery boiler. Recent study investigated several scenarios by increasing 25 percent capacity in model pulp-mill. Combined with heat integration, there is possibility whether exporting lignin 346 GWh/year or increasing electricity by 109 GWh/year with upgraded boiler. With lignin price 15€/MWh, lignin separation becomes more profitable than upgrading boiler capacity. In addition, it also concludes that electricity prices to lignin ratio should be below 1.9-2.3 to make lignin extraction becomes viable (Axelsson et al 2006).

Sweden is well known as leading country in bioenergy utilization. Biofuel contributes 116 TWh out of 624 TWh of total energy supply in Sweden year 2006. Two eminent sources of energy suppliers are still nuclear power and crude oil which altogether contributes 400 TWh. Recently, Swedish government introduces green electricity certificate in order to boost renewable electricity utilization by 17 TWh in 2016. In addition, impose tax on fossil fuel also has made biofuel becomes more competitive. Consequently, market is prepared to pay a high price (Swedish Energy Agency 2007).

Kraft pulp mill has prime potential to be biorefinery plant in future. In his article, Ben Thorp (2005) showed that new model pulp industry should develop wide range value added products through market driven innovation. Several strategies should be taken into account such as increase sustainable forestry, extract hemi cellulose, convert tall oil to biodiesel, replace recovery boiler with gasifier and usage of solid fuel gasifiers. Lignin extraction is only one small step to enter modern forest biorefinery. It is hoped that pulp mill will produce diverse chemical products and eventually could replace petro-based chemicals in future.

Conclusion
LignoBoost has introduced alternative biofuel from lignin. State of the art from this new process is laid on two washing stages. First dewatering stage is carried out in high pH (approximately 10) and second dewatering is performed on low pH (approximately 2-4). Sodium content of produced lignin is below 1 percent which is favorable if later used as fuel. Moreover, incineration test shows promising result in which lignin could replace 10-15 percent of coal.

In the case of increasing pulp mill capacity (debottleneck), it is more viable to extract lignin than invest on up-grading recovery boiler capacity. Further comparison should take into account potential of exporting lignin or exporting electricity from improved recovery boiler. It is concluded when electricity prices to lignin ratio is lower than 1.9-2.3, lignin investment becomes more interesting. According to Sweden’s experience, government plays important role to develop bioenergy by issuing pro-renewable energy policies.

Kraft pulp mill in future has prime potential to adopt biorefinery concept. The big picture is to have modern forest biorefinery plant which is able to produce wide range chemical products in future. From environmental aspect, lignin utilization will lead to reduction of CO2 emission or even further could reach negative emission. All by all, reliance on bio-based product will make us one step closer to reach sustainable society.

References

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